Internal Combustion Engines 4th Edition by V. Ganesan, ISBN-13: 978-1259006197

Description

Internal Combustion Engines 4th Edition by V. Ganesan, ISBN-13: 978-1259006197

[PDF eBook eTextbook]

• Publisher: ‎ Tata Mcgraw Hill Education Private Limited; 4th edition (April 1, 2012)
• 765 pages
• Language: ‎ English
• ISBN-10: ‎ 9781259006197
• ISBN-13: ‎ 978-1259006197

In an internal combustion engine, the combustion of the fuel takes place within a combustion chamber in the presence of a suitable (air, most often). The resultant rise in temperature and pressure from the combustion causes the movement of a specific part of the engine, the piston for example. This book, Internal Combustion Engines, gives the fundamental concepts and the specifics of various engine designs. The information is provided in a comprehensive manner, with highly detailed sketches. The book is divided into twenty chapters, each covering different aspects of internal combustion engines. The first chapter is an introduction to the construction, workings, and principles behind an internal combustion engine. The consequent chapters delve into more detail. The book first reviews all the basic principles of physics that are encountered when dealing with the engines. Then it talks about the analysis of air standard cycles, fuel air cycles, and actual cycles. A few sections of the book are then devoted to the fuels that are used for combustion, and also, mention is made of alternate fuels. The reader is Introduced to the different injection systems (mechanical and electronic). Mention is also made of lubrication and cooling the engine. The final section of the book is dedicated to a discussion on two-stroke engines.

Table of Contents:

Foreword vii

Preface ix

Nomenclature xxxi

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Energy Conversion 1

1.1.1 Definition of ‘Engine’ 1

1.1.2 Definition of ‘Heat Engine’ 1

1.1.3 Classification and Some Basic Details of Heat Engines 1

1.1.4 External Combustion and Internal Combustion Engines 2

1.2 Basic Engine Components and Nomenclature 3

1.2.1 Engine Components 3

1.2.2 Nomenclature 5

1.3 The Working Principle of Engines 6

1.3.1 Four-Stroke Spark-Ignition Engine 6

1.3.2 Four-Stroke Compression-Ignition Engine 8

1.3.3 Four-stroke SI and CI Engines 10

1.3.4 Two-Stroke Engine 10

1.3.5 Comparison of Four-Stroke and Two-Stroke Engines 12

1.4 Actual Engines 13

1.5 Classification of IC Engines 13

1.5.1 Cycle of Operation 16

1.5.2 Type of Fuel Used 16

1.5.3 Method of Charging 17

1.5.4 Type of Ignition 17

1.5.5 Type of Cooling 17

1.5.6 Cylinder Arrangements 17

1.6 Application of IC Engines 19

1.6.1 Two-Stroke Gasoline Engines 19

1.6.2 Two-Stroke Diesel Engines 20

1.6.3 Four-Stroke Gasoline Engines 20

1.6.4 Four-Stroke Diesel Engines 21

xii Contents

1.7 The First Law Analysis of Engine Cycle 21

1.8 Engine Performance Parameters 22

1.8.1 Indicated Thermal Efficiency (ηith) 22

1.8.2 Brake Thermal Efficiency (ηbth) 23

1.8.3 Mechanical Efficiency (ηm) 23

1.8.4 Volumetric Efficiency (ηv ) 23

1.8.5 Relative Efficiency or Efficiency Ratio (ηrel ) 24

1.8.6 Mean Effective Pressure (pm) 24

1.8.7 Mean Piston Speed (sp) 25

1.8.8 Specific Power Output (Ps) 25

1.8.9 Specific Fuel Consumption (sf c) 26

1.8.10 Inlet-Valve Mach Index (Z) 26

1.8.11 Fuel-Air (F/A) or Air-Fuel Ratio (A/F ) 26

1.8.12 Calorific Value (CV ) 27

1.9 Design and Performance Data 28

Worked out Examples 30

Review Questions 37

Exercise 38

Multiple Choice Questions 42

2 Air-Standard Cycles and Their Analysis 47

2.1 Introduction 47

2.2 The Carnot Cycle 48

2.3 The Stirling Cycle 50

2.4 The Ericsson Cycle 51

2.5 The Otto Cycle 52

2.5.1 Thermal Efficiency 53

2.5.2 Work Output 54

2.5.3 Mean Effective Pressure 55

2.6 The Diesel Cycle 55

2.6.1 Thermal Efficiency 56

2.6.2 Work Output 58

2.6.3 Mean Effective Pressure 58

2.7 The Dual Cycle 58

2.7.1 Thermal Efficiency 58

2.7.2 Work Output 60

2.7.3 Mean Effective Pressure 60

2.8 Comparison of the Otto, Diesel and Dual Cycles 61

2.8.1 Same Compression Ratio and Heat Addition 61

2.8.2 Same Compression Ratio and Heat Rejection 62

2.8.3 Same Peak Pressure, Peak Temperature & Heat Rejection 62

2.8.4 Same Maximum Pressure and Heat Input 63

2.8.5 Same Maximum Pressure and Work Output 64

Contents xiii

2.9 The Lenoir Cycle 64

2.10 The Atkinson Cycle 65

2.11 The Brayton Cycle 66

Worked out Examples 68

Review Questions 97

Exercise 98

Multiple Choice Questions 103

3 Fuel–Air Cycles and their Analysis 107

3.1 Introduction 107

3.2 Fuel–Air Cycles and their Significance 107

3.3 Composition of Cylinder Gases 109

3.4 Variable Specific Heats 109

3.5 Dissociation 111

3.6 Effect of Number of Moles 113

3.7 Comparison of Air–Standard and Fuel–Air Cycles 114

3.8 Effect of Operating Variables 115

3.8.1 Compression Ratio 115

3.8.2 Fuel–Air Ratio 117

Worked out Examples 121

Review Questions 128

Exercise 128

Multiple Choice Questions 129

4 Actual Cycles and their Analysis 131

4.1 Introduction 131

4.2 Comparison of Air-Standard and Actual Cycles 131

4.3 Time Loss Factor 132

4.4 Heat Loss Factor 137

4.5 Exhaust Blowdown 137

4.5.1 Loss Due to Gas Exchange Processes 138

4.5.2 Volumetric Efficiency 139

4.6 Loss due to Rubbing Friction 142

4.7 Actual and Fuel-Air Cycles of CI Engines 142

Review Questions 143

Multiple Choice Questions 144

5 Conventional Fuels 147

5.1 Introduction 147

5.2 Fuels 147

5.2.1 Solid Fuels 147

5.2.2 Gaseous Fuels 147

5.2.3 Liquid Fuels 148

xiv Contents

5.3 Chemical Structure of Petroleum 148

5.3.1 Paraffin Series 148

5.3.2 Olefin Series 149

5.3.3 Naphthene Series 150

5.3.4 Aromatic Series 150

5.4 Petroleum Refining Process 151

5.5 Important Qualities of Engine Fuels 153

5.5.1 SI Engine Fuels 154

5.5.2 CI Engine Fuels 156

5.6 Rating of Fuels 157

5.6.1 Rating of SI Engine Fuels 157

5.6.2 Rating of CI Engine Fuels 158

Review Questions 159

Multiple Choice Questions 160

6 Alternate Fuels 163

6.1 Introduction 163

6.2 Possible Alternatives 164

6.3 Solid Fuels 164

6.4 Liquid Fuels 166

6.4.1 Alcohol 166

6.4.2 Methanol 167

6.4.3 Ethanol 168

6.4.4 Alcohol for SI Engines 168

6.4.5 Reformulated Gasoline for SI Engine 169

6.4.6 Water-Gasoline Mixture for SI Engines 169

6.4.7 Alcohol for CI Engines 170

6.5 Surface-Ignition Alcohol CI Engine 171

6.6 Spark-Assisted Diesel 172

6.7 Vegetable Oil 172

6.8 Biodiesel 173

6.8.1 Production 174

6.8.2 Properties 175

6.8.3 Environmental Effects 175

6.8.4 Current Research 175

6.9 Gaseous Fuels 176

6.9.1 Hydrogen 176

6.10 Hydrogen Engines 177

6.10.1 Natural Gas 178

6.10.2 Advantages of Natural Gas 179

6.10.3 Disadvantages of Natural Gas 179

6.10.4 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) 180

6.10.5 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) 180

Contents xv

6.10.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of LPG 181

6.10.7 Future Scenario for LPG Vehicles 183

6.10.8 LPG (Propane) Fuel Feed System 183

6.11 Dual Fuel Operation 183

6.12 Other Possible Fuels 184

6.12.1 Biogas 184

6.12.2 Producer Gas 185

6.12.3 Blast Furnace Gas 185

6.12.4 Coke Oven Gas 185

6.12.5 Benzol 185

6.12.6 Acetone 186

6.12.7 Diethyl Ether 186

Review Questions 186

Multiple Choice Questions 187

7 Carburetion 189

7.1 Introduction 189

7.2 Definition of Carburetion 189

7.3 Factors Affecting Carburetion 189

7.4 Air–Fuel Mixtures 190

7.5 Mixture Requirements at Different Loads and Speeds 190

7.6 Automotive Engine Air–Fuel Mixture Requirements 192

7.6.1 Idling Range 192

7.6.2 Cruising Range 193

7.6.3 Power Range 194

7.7 Principle of Carburetion 195

7.8 The Simple Carburetor 196

7.9 Calculation of the Air–Fuel Ratio 197

7.9.1 Air–Fuel Ratio Neglecting Compressibility of Air 200

7.9.2 Air–Fuel Ratio Provided by a Simple Carburetor 200

7.9.3 Size of the Carburetor 201

7.10 Essential Parts of a Carburetor 201

7.10.1 The Fuel Strainer 201

7.10.2 The Float Chamber 201

7.10.3 The Main Metering and Idling System 202

7.10.4 The Choke and the Throttle 204

7.11 Compensating Devices 206

7.11.1 Air-bleed jet 206

7.11.2 Compensating Jet 207

7.11.3 Emulsion Tube 207

7.11.4 Back Suction Control Mechanism 208

7.11.5 Auxiliary Valve 210

7.11.6 Auxiliary Port 210

xvi Contents

7.12 Additional Systems in Modern Carburetors 210

7.12.1 Anti-dieseling System 211

7.12.2 Richer Coasting System 212

7.12.3 Acceleration Pump System 212

7.12.4 Economizer or Power Enrichment System 212

7.13 Types of Carburetors 213

7.13.1 Constant Choke Carburetor 214

7.13.2 Constant Vacuum Carburetor 214

7.13.3 Multiple Venturi Carburetor 214

7.13.4 Advantages of a Multiple Venturi System 216

7.13.5 Multijet Carburetors 216

7.13.6 Multi-barrel Venturi Carburetor 217

7.14 Automobile Carburetors 218

7.14.1 Solex Carburetors 218

7.14.2 Carter Carburetor 220

7.14.3 S.U. Carburetor 222

7.15 Altitude Compensation 223

7.15.1 Altitude Compensation Devices 224

Worked out Examples 225

Review Questions 234

Exercise 235

Multiple Choice Questions 238

8 Mechanical Injection Systems 241

8.1 Introduction 241

8.2 Functional Requirements of an Injection System 241

8.3 Classification of Injection Systems 242

8.3.1 Air Injection System 242

8.3.2 Solid Injection System 242

8.3.3 Individual Pump and Nozzle System 243

8.3.4 Unit Injector System 244

8.3.5 Common Rail System 244

8.3.6 Distributor System 245

8.4 Fuel Feed Pump 246

8.5 Injection Pump 246

8.5.1 Jerk Type Pump 246

8.5.2 Distributor Type Pump 248

8.6 Injection Pump Governor 248

8.7 Mechanical Governor 250

8.8 Pneumatic Governor 251

8.9 Fuel Injector 251

Contents xvii

8.10 Nozzle 252

8.10.1 Types of Nozzle 253

8.10.2 Spray Formation 255

8.10.3 Quantity of Fuel and the Size of Nozzle Orifice 257

8.11 Injection in SI Engine 258

Worked out Examples 259

Review Questions 266

Exercise 267

Multiple Choice Questions 268

9 Electronic Injection Systems 271

9.1 Introduction 271

9.2 Why Gasoline Injection? 271

9.2.1 Types of Injection Systems 272

9.2.2 Components of Injection System 273

9.3 Electronic Fuel Injection System 275

9.3.1 Merits of EFI System 276

9.3.2 Demerits of EFI System 276

9.4 Multi-Point Fuel Injection (MPFI) System 277

9.4.1 Port Injection 277

9.4.2 Throttle Body Injection System 278

9.4.3 D-MPFI System 278

9.4.4 L-MPFI System 279

9.5 Functional Divisions of MPFI System 279

9.5.1 MPFI-Electronic Control System 279

9.5.2 MPFI-Fuel System 279

9.5.3 MPFI-Air Induction System 279

9.6 Electronic Control System 281

9.6.1 Electronic Control Unit (ECU) 281

9.6.2 Cold Start Injector 282

9.6.3 Air Valve 282

9.7 Injection Timing 283

9.8 Group Gasoline Injection System 284

9.9 Electronic Diesel Injection System 286

9.10 Electronic Diesel Injection Control 287

9.10.1 Electronically Controlled Unit Injectors 287

9.10.2 Electronically Controlled Injection Pumps (Inline and

Distributor Type) 288

9.10.3 Common-Rail Fuel Injection System 290

Review Questions 292

Multiple Choice Questions 293

xviii Contents

10 Ignition 295

10.1 Introduction 295

10.2 Energy Requirements for Ignition 295

10.3 The Spark Energy and Duration 296

10.4 Ignition System 296

10.5 Requirements of an Ignition System 297

10.6 Battery Ignition System 297

10.6.1 Battery 298

10.6.2 Ignition Switch 299

10.6.3 Ballast Resistor 299

10.6.4 Ignition Coil 299

10.6.5 Contact Breaker 300

10.6.6 Capacitor 301

10.6.7 Distributor 301

10.6.8 Spark Plug 302

10.7 Operation of a Battery Ignition System 304

10.8 Limitations 305

10.9 Dwell Angle 306

10.10 Advantage of a 12 V Ignition System 307

10.11 Magneto Ignition System 307

10.12 Modern Ignition Systems 309

10.12.1 Transistorized Coil Ignition (TCI) System 310

10.12.2 Capacitive Discharge Ignition (CDI) System 312

10.13 Firing Order 312

10.14 Ignition Timing and Engine Parameters 314

10.14.1 Engine Speed 314

10.14.2 Mixture Strength 315

10.14.3 Part Load Operation 315

10.14.4 Type of Fuel 315

10.15 Spark Advance Mechanism 315

10.15.1 Centrifugal Advance Mechanism 316

10.15.2 Vacuum Advance Mechanism 317

10.16 Ignition Timing and Exhaust Emissions 318

Review Questions 319

Multiple Choice Questions 320

11 Combustion and Combustion Chambers 323

11.1 Introduction 323

11.2 Homogeneous Mixture 323

11.3 Heterogeneous Mixture 324

11.4 Combustion in Spark–Ignition Engines 324

11.5 Stages of Combustion in SI Engines 324

11.6 Flame Front Propagation 326

Contents xix

11.7 Factors Influencing the Flame Speed 327

11.8 Rate of Pressure Rise 329

11.9 Abnormal Combustion 330

11.10 The Phenomenon of Knock in SI Engines 330

11.10.1 Knock Limited Parameters 332

11.11 Effect of Engine Variables on Knock 333

11.11.1 Density Factors 333

11.11.2 Time Factors 334

11.11.3 Composition Factors 335

11.12 Combustion Chambers for SI Engines 336

11.12.1 Smooth Engine Operation 337

11.12.2 High Power Output and Thermal Efficiency 337

11.13 Combustion in Compression-Ignition Engines 339

11.14 Stages of Combustion in CI Engines 342

11.14.1 Ignition Delay Period 342

11.14.2 Period of Rapid Combustion 344

11.14.3 Period of Controlled Combustion 344

11.14.4 Period of After-Burning 344

11.15 Factors Affecting the Delay Period 344

11.15.1 Compression Ratio 345

11.15.2 Engine Speed 346

11.15.3 Output 347

11.15.4 Atomization and Duration of Injection 347

11.15.5 Injection Timing 347

11.15.6 Quality of Fuel 347

11.15.7 Intake Temperature 347

11.15.8 Intake Pressure 348

11.16 The Phenomenon of Knock in CI Engines 348

11.17 Comparison of Knock in SI and CI Engines 350

11.18 Combustion Chambers for CI Engines 352

11.18.1 Direct–Injection Chambers 353

11.18.2 Indirect–Injection Chambers 355

Review Questions 357

Multiple Choice Questions 358

12 Engine Friction and Lubrication 361

12.1 Introduction 361

12.1.1 Direct Frictional Losses 361

12.1.2 Pumping Loss 361

12.1.3 Power Loss to Drive Components to Charge

and Scavenge 362

12.1.4 Power Loss to Drive the Auxiliaries 362

12.2 Mechanical Efficiency 362

xx Contents

12.3 Mechanical Friction 363

12.3.1 Fluid-film or Hydrodynamic Friction 363

12.3.2 Partial-film Friction 363

12.3.3 Rolling Friction 363

12.3.4 Dry Friction 363

12.3.5 Journal Bearing Friction 364

12.3.6 Friction due to Piston Motion 364

12.4 Blowby Losses 364

12.5 Pumping Loss 365

12.5.1 Exhaust Blowdown Loss 365

12.5.2 Exhaust Stroke Loss 365

12.5.3 Intake Stroke Loss 365

12.6 Factors Affecting Mechanical Friction 366

12.6.1 Engine Design 366

12.6.2 Engine Speed 367

12.6.3 Engine Load 367

12.6.4 Cooling Water Temperature 367

12.6.5 Oil Viscosity 367

12.7 Lubrication 367

12.7.1 Function of Lubrication 368

12.7.2 Mechanism of Lubrication 368

12.7.3 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication 371

12.7.4 Journal Bearing Lubrication 372

12.7.5 Stable Lubrication 374

12.8 Lubrication of Engine Components 375

12.8.1 Piston 375

12.8.2 Crankshaft Bearings 376

12.8.3 Crankpin Bearings 376

12.8.4 Wristpin Bearing 376

12.9 Lubrication System 377

12.9.1 Mist Lubrication System 377

12.9.2 Wet Sump Lubrication System 379

12.9.3 Dry Sump Lubrication System 382

12.10 Crankcase Ventilation 383

12.11 Properties of Lubricants 384

12.11.1 Viscosity 385

12.11.2 Flash and Fire Points 385

12.11.3 Cloud and Pour Points 385

12.11.4 Oiliness or Film Strength 386

12.11.5 Corrosiveness 386

12.11.6 Detergency 386

12.11.7 Stability 386

12.11.8 Foaming 386

12.12 SAE Rating of Lubricants 386

12.12.1 Single-grade 386

12.12.2 Multi-grade 387

12.13 Additives for Lubricants 388

12.13.1 Anti-oxidants and Anticorrosive Agents 388

12.13.2 Detergent-Dispersant 389

12.13.3 Extreme Pressure Additives 389

12.13.4 Pour Point Depressors 389

12.13.5 Viscosity Index Improvers 389

12.13.6 Oiliness and Film Strength Agents 389

12.13.7 Antifoam Agents 390

Review Questions 390

Multiple Choice Questions 390

13 Heat Rejection and Cooling 393

13.1 Introduction 393

13.2 Variation of Gas Temperature 393

13.3 Piston Temperature Distribution 394

13.4 Cylinder Temperature Distribution 395

13.5 Heat Transfer 395

13.6 Theory of Engine Heat Transfer 397

13.7 Parameters Affecting Engine Heat Transfer 399

13.7.1 Fuel-Air Ratio 399

13.7.2 Compression Ratio 399

13.7.3 Spark Advance 399

13.7.4 Preignition and Knocking 399

13.7.5 Engine Output 399

13.7.6 Cylinder Wall Temperature 400

13.8 Power Required to Cool the Engine 400

13.9 Need for Cooling System 400

13.10 Characteristics of an Efficient Cooling System 401

13.11 Types of Cooling Systems 401

13.12 Liquid Cooled Systems 401

13.12.1 Direct or Non-return System 402

13.12.2 Thermosyphon System 403

13.12.3 Forced Circulation Cooling System 403

13.12.4 Evaporative Cooling System 407

13.12.5 Pressure Cooling System 408

13.13 Air–Cooled System 409

13.13.1 Cooling Fins 409

13.13.2 Baffles 411

xxii Contents

13.14 Comparison of Liquid and Air–Cooling Systems 411

13.14.1 Advantages of Liquid-Cooling System 411

13.14.2 Limitations 412

13.14.3 Advantages of Air-Cooling System 412

13.14.4 Limitations 412

Review Questions 413

Multiple Choice Questions 414

14 Engine Emissions and Their Control 417

14.1 Introduction 417

14.2 Air Pollution due to IC Engines 417

14.3 Emission Norms 418

14.3.1 Overview of the Emission Norms in India 419

14.4 Comparison between Bharat Stage and Euro norms 419

14.5 Engine Emissions 421

14.5.1 Exhaust Emissions 421

14.6 Hydrocarbons (HC) 422

14.7 Hydrocarbon Emission 423

14.7.1 Incomplete Combustion 423

14.7.2 Crevice Volumes and Flow in Crevices 424

14.7.3 Leakage Past the Exhaust Valve 425

14.7.4 Valve Overlap 425

14.7.5 Deposits on Walls 425

14.7.6 Oil on Combustion Chamber Walls 426

14.8 Hydrocarbon Emission from Two-Stroke Engines 426

14.9 Hydrocarbon Emission from CI Engines 427

14.10 Carbon Monoxide (CO) Emission 428

14.11 Oxides Of Nitrogen (NOx) 429

14.11.1 Photochemical Smog 430

14.12 Particulates 430

14.13 Other Emissions 433

14.13.1 Aldehydes 433

14.13.2 Sulphur 433

14.13.3 Lead 434

14.13.4 Phosphorus 435

14.14 Emission Control Methods 435

14.14.1 Thermal Converters 435

14.15 Catalytic Converters 436

14.15.1 Sulphur 439

14.15.2 Cold Start-Ups 440

14.16 CI engines 441

14.16.1 Particulate Traps 441

14.16.2 Modern Diesel Engines 442

Contents xxiii

14.17 Reducing Emissions by Chemical Methods 442

14.17.1 Ammonia Injection Systems 443

14.18 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) 443

14.19 Non-Exhaust Emissions 445

14.19.1 Evaporative Emissions 446

14.19.2 Evaporation Loss Control Device (ELCD) 447

14.20 Modern Evaporative Emission Control System 448

14.20.1 Charcoal Canister 449

14.21 Crankcase Blowby 450

14.21.1 Blowby Control 450

14.21.2 Intake Manifold Return PCV System (Open Type) 450

Review Questions 452

Multiple Choice Questions 453

15 Measurements and Testing 457

15.1 Introduction 457

15.2 Friction Power 457

15.2.1 Willan’s Line Method 458

15.2.2 Morse Test 459

15.2.3 Motoring Test 461

15.2.4 From the Measurement of Indicated and Brake Power 461

15.2.5 Retardation Test 461

15.2.6 Comparison of Various Methods 463

15.3 Indicated Power 463

15.3.1 Method using the Indicator Diagram 464

15.3.2 Engine Indicators 465

15.3.3 Electronic Indicators 465

15.4 Brake Power 467

15.4.1 Prony Brake 469

15.4.2 Rope Brake 470

15.4.3 Hydraulic Dynamometer 471

15.4.4 Eddy Current Dynamometer 471

15.4.5 Swinging Field DC Dynamometer 473

15.4.6 Fan Dynamometer 473

15.4.7 Transmission Dynamometer 474

15.4.8 Chassis Dynamometer 474

15.5 Fuel Consumption 474

15.5.1 Volumetric Type Flowmeter 475

15.5.2 Gravimetric Fuel Flow Measurement 478

15.5.3 Fuel Consumption Measurement in Vehicles 479

15.6 Air Consumption 479

15.6.1 Air Box Method 480

15.6.2 Viscous-Flow Air Meter 480

xxiv Contents

15.7 Speed 481

15.8 Exhaust and Coolant Temperature 481

15.9 Emission 482

15.9.1 Oxides of Nitrogen 482

15.9.2 Carbon Monoxide 483

15.9.3 Unburned Hydrocarbons 484

15.9.4 Aldehydes 485

15.10 Visible Emissions 487

15.10.1 Smoke 487

15.11 Noise 490

15.12 Combustion Phenomenon 491

15.12.1 Flame Temperature Measurement 491

15.12.2 Flame Propagation 494

15.12.3 Combustion Process 495

Review Questions 496

Multiple Choice Questions 497

16 Performance Parameters and Characteristics 499

16.1 Introduction 499

16.2 Engine Power 500

16.2.1 Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (pim) 500

16.2.2 Indicated Power (ip) 501

16.2.3 Brake Power (bp) 502

16.2.4 Brake Mean Effective Pressure (pbm) 504

16.3 Engine Efficiencies 505

16.3.1 Air-Standard Efficiency 505

16.3.2 Indicated and Brake Thermal Efficiencies 505

16.3.3 Mechanical Efficiency 505

16.3.4 Relative Efficiency 506

16.3.5 Volumetric Efficiency 506

16.3.6 Scavenging Efficiency 507

16.3.7 Charge Efficiency 507

16.3.8 Combustion Efficiency 507

16.4 Engine Performance Characteristics 507

16.5 Variables Affecting Performance Characteristics 511

16.5.1 Combustion Rate and Spark Timing 511

16.5.2 Air-Fuel Ratio 512

16.5.3 Compression Ratio 512

16.5.4 Engine Speed 512

16.5.5 Mass of Inducted Charge 512

16.5.6 Heat Losses 512

16.6 Methods of Improving Engine Performance 512

16.7 Heat Balance 513

Contents xxv

16.8 Performance Maps 516

16.8.1 SI Engines 516

16.8.2 CI Engines 516

16.9 Analytical Method of Performance Estimation 518

Worked out Examples 521

Review Questions 563

Exercise 564

Multiple Choice Questions 571

17 Engine Electronics 575

17.1 Introduction 575

17.2 Typical Engine Management Systems 576

17.3 Position Displacement and Speed Sensing 577

17.3.1 Inductive Transducers 578

17.3.2 Hall Effect Pickup 578

17.3.3 Potentiometers 579

17.3.4 Linear Variable Differential transformer (LVDT) 580

17.3.5 Electro Optical Sensors 581

17.4 Measurement of Pressure 582

17.4.1 Strain Gauge Sensors 582

17.4.2 Capacitance Transducers 584

17.4.3 Peizoelectric Sensors 584

17.5 Temperature Measurement 585

17.5.1 Thermistors 585

17.5.2 Thermocouples 587

17.5.3 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) 587

17.6 Intake air flow measurement 587

17.6.1 Hot Wire Sensor 589

17.6.2 Flap Type Sensor 590

17.6.3 Vortex Sensor 591

17.7 Exhaust Oxygen Sensor 592

17.7.1 Knock Sensor 592

Review Questions 594

Multiple Choice Questions 594

18 Supercharging 597

18.1 Introduction 597

18.2 Supercharging 597

18.3 Types Of Superchargers 598

18.3.1 Centrifugal Type Supercharger 599

18.3.2 Root’s Supercharger 599

18.3.3 Vane Type Supercharger 599

18.3.4 Comparison between the Three Superchargers 600

xxvi Contents

18.4 Methods of Supercharging 600

18.4.1 Electric Motor Driven Supercharging 601

18.4.2 Ram Effect of Supercharging 601

18.4.3 Under Piston Supercharging 601

18.4.4 Kadenacy System of Supercharging 601

18.5 Effects of Supercharging 602

18.6 Limitations to Supercharging 603

18.7 Thermodynamic Analysis of Supercharged Engine Cycle 603

18.8 Power Input for Mechanical Driven Supercharger 604

18.9 Gear Driven and Exhaust Driven Supercharging Arrangements 606

18.10 Turbocharging 607

18.10.1 Charge Cooling 610

Worked out Examples 610

Review Questions 620

Exercise 621

Multiple Choice Questions 623

19 Two-Stroke Engines 625

19.1 Introduction 625

19.2 Types of Two-Stroke Engines 625

19.2.1 Crankcase Scavenged Engine 625

19.2.2 Separately Scavenged Engine 626

19.3 Terminologies and Definitions 628

19.3.1 Delivery Ratio (Rdel ) 629

19.3.2 Trapping Efficiency 629

19.3.3 Relative Cylinder Charge 629

19.3.4 Scavenging Efficiency 630

19.3.5 Charging Efficiency 631

19.3.6 Pressure Loss Coefficient (Pl ) 631

19.3.7 Index for Compressing the Scavenge Air (n) 632

19.3.8 Excess Air Factor (λ) 632

19.4 Two-stroke Air Capacity 632

19.5 Theoretical Scavenging Processes 632

19.5.1 Perfect Scavenging 633

19.5.2 Perfect Mixing 633

19.5.3 Short Circuiting 633

19.6 Actual Scavenging Process 633

19.7 Classification Based on Scavenging Process 634

19.8 Comparison of Scavenging Methods 636

19.9 Scavenging Pumps 636

19.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Two-stroke Engines 637

19.10.1 Advantages of Two-stroke Engines 637

19.10.2 Disadvantages of Two-Stroke Engines 638

Contents xxvii

19.11 Comparison of Two-stroke SI and CI Engines 639

Worked out Examples 639

Review Questions 645

Exercise 645

Multiple Choice Questions 647

20 Nonconventional Engines 649

20.1 Introduction 649

20.2 Common Rail Direct Injection Engine 649

20.2.1 The Working Principle 650

20.2.2 The Injector 650

20.2.3 Sensors 652

20.2.4 Electronic Control Unit (ECU) 652

20.2.5 Microcomputer 653

20.2.6 Status of CRDI Engines 653

20.2.7 Principle of CRDI in Gasoline Engines 654

20.2.8 Advantages of CRDI Systems 654

20.3 Dual Fuel and Multi-Fuel Engine 654

20.3.1 The Working Principle 655

20.3.2 Combustion in Dual-Fuel Engines 655

20.3.3 Nature of Knock in a Dual-Fuel Engine 656

20.3.4 Weak and Rich Combustion Limits 657

20.3.5 Factors Affecting Combustion in a Dual-Fuel Engine 657

20.3.6 Advantages of Dual Fuel Engines 658

20.4 Multifuel Engines 658

20.4.1 Characteristics of a Multi-Fuel Engine 659

20.5 Free Piston Engine 660

20.5.1 Free-Piston Engine Basics 661

20.5.2 Categories of Free Piston Engine 661

20.5.3 Single Piston 661

20.5.4 Dual Piston 661

20.5.5 Opposed Piston 662

20.5.6 Free Piston Gas Generators 663

20.5.7 Loading Requirements 664

20.5.8 Design Features 664

20.5.9 The Combustion Process 664

20.5.10 Combustion Optimization 665

20.5.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of Free Piston Engine 665

20.5.12 Applications of Free Piston Engine 666

20.6 Gasoline Direct Injection Engine 667

20.6.1 Modes of Operation 668

xxviii Contents

20.7 Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition Engine 670

20.7.1 Control 671

20.7.2 Variable Compression Ratio 671

20.7.3 Variable Induction Temperature 671

20.7.4 Variable Exhaust Gas Percentage 672

20.7.5 Variable Valve Actuation 672

20.7.6 Variable Fuel Ignition Quality 672

20.7.7 Power 673

20.7.8 Emissions 673

20.7.9 Difference in Engine Knock 673

20.7.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of HCCI Engine 674

20.8 Lean Burn Engine 674

20.8.1 Basics of Lean Burn Technology 676

20.8.2 Lean Burn Combustion 676

20.8.3 Combustion Monitoring 677

20.8.4 Lean Burn Emissions 677

20.8.5 Fuel Flexibility 677

20.8.6 Toyota Lean Burn Engine 678

20.8.7 Honda Lean Burn Systems 678

20.8.8 Mitsubishi Ultra Lean Burn Combustion Engines 679

20.9 Stirling Engine 680

20.9.1 Principle of Operation 681

20.9.2 Types of Stirling Engines 683

20.9.3 Alpha Stirling Engine 683

20.9.4 Working Principle of Alpha Stirling Engine 684

20.9.5 Beta Stirling Engine 685

20.9.6 Working Principle of Beta Stirling Engine 685

20.9.7 The Stirling Cycle 686

20.9.8 Displacer Type Stirling Engine 687

20.9.9 Pressurization 687

20.9.10 Lubricants and Friction 688

20.9.11 Comparison with Internal Combustion Engines 688

20.9.12 Advantages and Disadvantages of Stirling Engine 688

20.9.13 Applications 691

20.9.14 Future of Stirling Engines 691

20.10 Stratified Charge Engine 692

20.10.1 Advantages of Burning Leaner Overall

Fuel-Air Mixtures 692

20.10.2 Methods of Charge Stratification 695

20.10.3 Stratification by Fuel Injection and Positive Ignition 695

20.10.4 Volkswagen PCI stratified charge engine 696

20.10.5 Broderson Method of Stratification 697

20.10.6 Charge Stratification by Swirl 698

Contents xxix

20.10.7 Ford Combustion Process (FCP) 698

20.10.8 Ford PROCO 700

20.10.9 Texaco Combustion Process (TCP) 700

20.10.10 Witzky Swirl Stratification Process 702

20.10.11 Honda CVCC Engine 702

20.10.12 Advantages and Disadvantages of Stratified

Charge Engines 703

20.11 Variable Compression Ratio Engine 704

20.11.1 Cortina Variable Compression Engine 705

20.11.2 Cycle Analysis 706

20.11.3 The CFR Engine 707

20.11.4 Performance of Variable Compression Ratio Engines 707

20.11.5 Variable Compression Ratio Applications 709

20.12 Wankel Engine 709

20.12.1 Basic Design 710

20.12.2 Comparison of Reciprocating and Wankel Rotary Engine712

20.12.3 Materials 712

20.12.4 Sealing 712

20.12.5 Fuel consumption and emissions 712

20.12.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Wankel Engines 713

Review Questions 714

Multiple Choice Questions 716

Index 719

V. GANESAN currently working as Professor Emeritus in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, is the recipient of Anna University National Award for Outstanding Academic for the Year 1997. He was the Head of the Department of Mechanical Engineering, at Indian Institute of Technology Madras between October 2000 and June 2002. He was also the Dean (Academic Research) at Indian Institute of Technology Madras between January 1998 and October 2000. He has so far published more than 350 research papers in national and international journals and conferences and has guided 20 M.S. and 40 Ph.D.s.

Among other awards received by him are the Babcock Power Award for the best fundamental scientific paper of Journal of Energy (1987), the Institution of Engineers Merit Prize and Citation (1993), SVRCET Surat Prize (1995), Sri Rajendra Nath Mookerjee Memorial Medal (1996), Automobile Engineer of the Year by the Institution of Automobile Engineers (India) (2001), Institution of Engineers (India), Tamil Nadu Scientist Award (TANSA) – 2003 by Tamil Nadu State Council for Science and Technology, ISTE Periyar Award for Best Engineering College Teacher (2004), N K Iyengar Memorial Prize (2004) by Institution of Engineers (India), SVRCET Surat Prize (2004), Khosla National Award (2004), Bharat Jyoti Award (2006), UWA Outstanding Intellectuals of the 21st Century Award by United Writers Association, Chennai (2006), 2006 SAE Cliff Garrett Turbomachinery Engineering Award by SAE International, USA, Sir Rajendra Nath Mookerjee Memorial Prize (2006) by Institution of Engineers, Environmental Engineering Design Award 2006 by The Institution of Engineers (India), 2006 SAE Cliff Garrett Turbomachinery Engineering Award (2007), Excellence in Engineering Education (Triple “E”) Award by SAE International, USA (2007), Rashtriya Gaurav Award in the field of Science and Technology by India International Friendship Society (2012), and Best Citizens of India Award by International Publishing House New Delhi (2012). He is the Fellow of Indian National Academy of Engineering, National Environmental Science Academy, Fellow of SAE International, USA, and Institution of Engineers (India). He has also been felicitated by International Combustion Institute Indian Section for lifetime contribution in the field of I C engines and combustion.

Dr. Ganesan has authored several other books on Gas Turbines, Computer Simulation of Four- Stroke Spark-Ignition Engines and Computer Simulation of Four-Stroke Compression-Ignition Engines and has also edited several proceedings. He was formerly the Chairman of Combustion Institute (Indian Section) and is currently the Chairman of Engineering Education Board of SAE (India), besides being a member of many other professional societies.

Dr. Ganesan is actively engaged in a number of sponsored research projects and is a consultant for various industries and R&D organizations.

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